Date of Degree

12-2025

Document Type

Dissertation

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Program

Education

Advisor

Norman St. Clair

Advisor

Tamara Reid McIntosh

Advisor

John A. De La Garza

Abstract

In 2018, more than six million people in the United States were under correctional supervision, including incarceration, probation, or parole, equivalent to 1 in 40 adults (Maruschak & Minton, 2020). While this reflects a decline from previous years, prison populations reversed course in 2022, increasing by 2% nationwide, with 36 states and federal facilities reporting higher inmate counts (Nellis, 2024). Since 1973, policy shifts have fueled the rise of mass incarceration (Nellis, 2021; O’Brien, 2020). According to the Pew Center, the United States remains a global outlier, holding 5% of the world’s population, but incarcerates 25% of the 9 million people incarcerated globally (Cullen et al., 2011). This disproportionate rate of imprisonment reflects fundamental issues within the criminal justice system that extend far beyond simple crime control measures. Moreover, this striking statistic indicates that the incarceration rate for American citizens is four times higher than the global average (Kubrin & Seron, 2016). In comparison, China was second behind the United States with 1.69 million people imprisoned (World Prison Brief, 2021). Racial disparities are pronounced: African-American men are imprisoned at a rate 5.8 times higher than White males, and African-American females are imprisoned 1.8 times the rate of White females (Carson, 2020). These figures reveal systemic inequities that cannot be understood solely through statistics, as incarcerations impacts individuals’ lives, livelihoods, and families. Upon release, many experienced entrenched barriers to reintegration, including job experience, low educational attainment, mental health challenges, and persistent employment discrimination.

This qualitative, metasynthesis study examines how formerly incarcerated individuals experience discrimination after completing their sentences. Guided by policy design theory, which analyzes how policies can simultaneously advantage certain societal groups while hindering others’ progress- this study synthesizes research on post-release barriers. By integrating findings across multiple qualitative studies, this research highlights the structural and interpersonal factors that perpetuate disadvantage for individuals with criminal records. The study underscores the enduring consequences of incarceration, revealing how policy and practice contribute to cycles of marginalization long after formal sentences end.

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